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Endocrinology Vol. 140, No. 7 3082-3090
Copyright © 1999 by The Endocrine Society

ARTICLES

Basic Fibroblast Growth Factor Induces Proteolysis of Secreted and Cell Membrane-Associated Insulin-Like Growth Factor Binding Protein-2 in Human Neuroblastoma Cells1

Vincenzo C. Russo, Georgia Rekaris, Naomi L. Baker, Leon A. Bach and George A. Werther

Centre for Hormone Research (V.C.R., G.R., N.L.B., G.A.W.), Royal Children’s Hospital Research Institute, Parkville 3052, Victoria, Australia; University of Melbourne, Department of Paediatrics (V.C.R., G.R., N.L.B., G.A.W.), Royal Children’s Hospital, Melbourne 3052, Victoria, Australia; and Department of Medicine (L.A.B.), Austin and Repatriation Medical Centre, Heidelberg 3084, Victoria, Australia

Address all correspondence and requests for reprints to: Associate Professor George A. Werther, Centre for Hormone Research, Royal Children’s Hospital, Flemington Road, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia, E-mail: werther{at}cryptic.rch.unimelb.edu.au


   Abstract
Top
 Abstract
Introduction
 Materials and Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 References
 
Insulin-like growth factor (IGF) action in the brain is modulated by IGF-binding proteins (IGFBPs) whose abundance can be altered by other locally expressed growth factors. However, the mechanisms involved are unclear. We here employed the neuroblastoma cell line SK-N-MC as a model to define the mechanisms involved in modulation of IGFBPs in neuronal cells. Western ligand blotting analysis and immunoprecipitation of conditioned media (CM) from SK-N-MC cells showed that in these cells, as in the brain, the most abundantly expressed IGFBP was IGFBP-2. However, IGFBP-2 was barely detectable in CM from cells treated with basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) without a change in IGFBP-2 messenger RNA (mRNA) abundance. These CM contained specific IGFBP-2 proteolytic activity, resulting in two IGFBP-2 fragments of 14 and 22 kDa. The activity was inhibited by EDTA/phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride or aprotinin. Competitive binding studies indicated that IGFBP-2 fragments had reduced binding affinity for IGF-I. bFGF induced IGFBP-3 mRNA and protein. Affinity cross-linking of [125I]IGF-I to neuroblastoma cell membranes followed by immunoprecipitation revealed a ~38 kDa [125I]IGF-I/IGFBP-2 complex. Cell surface-associated IGFBP-2 was also susceptible to bFGF-induced proteolysis, with the appearance of a single cross-linked 21-kDa complex with low affinity for IGF-I. These findings indicate that intact IGFBP-2 and the 14-kDa, but not the 22-kDa fragment, bind to the cell surface. Our data suggest that induction of IGFBP-2 proteolysis on neuronal cell surface is a novel mechanism whereby IGF availability is modulated by the local growth factor bFGF.


   Introduction
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
Materials and Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 References
 
THE insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) are peptides that regulate cell growth, differentiation, and survival (1, 2, 3). They are synthesized and active in most tissues, including the developing nervous system, and may act in an endocrine, autocrine, or paracrine manner (1, 2). The key role of the IGFs in the nervous system has been demonstrated in several in vivo and in vitro models (3). Studies of IGF transgenic and knock-out mouse models have shown that IGF-I is required for normal development and viability in both the fetal and newborn mouse (3). IGF-I knock-out mice have small brains, whereas overexpression of the IGF-I gene generates mice with larger brains. The latter is the result of suppressed apoptotic neuronal cell death, which occurs during normal brain development, when all of the components of the IGF system are expressed in a precise spatial and temporal manner (3). In vivo expression of IGF-I and IGF-binding proteins (IGFBPs) is dramatically altered in damaged neuronal tissue (4), and administration of IGF-I rescues and prevents neuronal loss in such areas (4).

IGF action is controlled at different levels including tissue and developmentally specific transcriptional and posttranscriptional regulation of the IGFs (5, 6). IGF cellular responses are further modulated by the six IGFBPs (2) via IGF/IGFBP interactions, which occur in the pericellular and/or extracellular space, affecting IGF diffusion/stability and regulating IGF-I targeting to its receptors (2). Furthermore, specific IGFBP proteases, including members of the kallikrein family (7), neutral and acid-activated cathepsins (8), or the matrix metalloproteinase family (9), generate fragments that have reduced binding affinity for IGFs (10), thereby facilitating the release of free IGF peptide.

IGFBP-2 has been shown to associate with cell surface in several systems (11, 12, 13), thus creating additional binding sites for the IGFs. In the rat brain these nonreceptor IGF-I binding sites (13) are colocalized with areas rich in IGF-I receptors (14) and with high expression of IGF-I (15). The further observation that the affinity of IGFBP-2 for IGF-I is reduced when bound to PGs (13) suggests that membrane-bound IGFBP-2 could play a key role in targeting IGF-I to its receptors.

The IGF system and IGF-I signaling can be modulated by other local growth factors (16, 17). Basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) acts synergistically with IGF-I in controlling growth and proliferation of chromaffin cells (18) and central nervous system precursors (19). Growth and survival of rat brain explants are sustained by a combination of bFGF and IGF-I (17, 20). In the rat brain olfactory bulb, bFGF differentially regulates IGFBP expression (21). In addition, bFGF up-regulates expression of the IGF-I receptor in neuroblastoma cells (22), with consequent increase in IGF tumorigenic activity.

In the present study we employed the neuroblastoma cell line SK-N-MC, which synthesizes IGF-I receptors (23), IGF-I (24), and IGFBPs (25), as a model system for neuronal cells, to examine novel mechanisms involved in the regulation of IGFBP-2 abundance and, consequently, IGF-I bioavailability, induced by other local growth factors and hormones active in the brain.


   Materials and Methods
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Materials and Methods
Results
 Discussion
 References
 
Reagents
Recombinant human-IGF-I was a gift from Dr. A. Skottner (KabiPharmacia, Peptide Hormones, Stockholm, Sweden). Bovine bFGF, human epidermal growth factor (EGF), human platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), protease inhibitors, phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride (PMSF), E-64, AEBSF, and pepstatin, and the random primed DNA labeling kit were from Boehringer Mannheim (North Ryde, New South Wales, Australia). [125I]IGF-I (~2000 Ci/mmol) and Hybond-N nylon membrane were purchased from Amersham (North Ryde, NSW, Australia). Anti-IGFBP-2 and anti-IGFBP-5 antisera were purchased from Upstate Biotechnology, Inc. (Lake Placid, NY). {alpha}-Hec1 rabbit antiserum to human IGFBP-3 was a gift from Dr. R. G. Rosenfeld (Oregon Health Science University, Portland, OR). Rabbit anti-IGFBP-4 was kindly supplied by Dr. S. D. Chernausek (University of Cincinnati, OH). Rat IGFBP-2 was purified as previously described (26). Recombinant human nonglycosylated Escherichia coli IGFBP-3 was supplied courtesy of Dr. C. Maack and A. Sommer (Celtrix Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Santa Clara, CA). Human pregnant serum, 31 weeks of gestation, was kindly supplied by Ms. L. De Rosa (Royal Women’s Hospital, Melbourne, Australia). Total cellular RNA was extracted from cells using RNAzol (Biotecx Laboratories, Inc., Houston, TX). Prepubertal rat kidney total RNA was supplied courtesy of Dr. S. Ymer (Centre for Hormone Research, Royal Children’s Hospital, Melbourne, Australia). Complementary DNAs for human IGFBP-2, -3, and -4 were obtained from Dr. S. Shimasaki (Whittier Institute, La Jolla, CA). Protein-A-Sepharose CL-4B, RIA grade BSA, 5-{alpha}-dehydrotestosterone (DHT), and aprotinin were purchased from Sigma Chemical Co. (St. Louis, MO). The neuroblastoma cell line SK-N-MC was kindly supplied by Professor V. R. Sara (Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia). Disuccinimidyl suberate (DSS) was obtained from Pierce Chemical Co. (Rockford, IL). Chemical reagents (Analar grade) were purchased from BDH-Merck Pty Ltd (Kilsyth, Victoria, Australia). Nitrocellulose membranes (0.45 µM) were obtained from Schleicher & Schuell, Inc. (Dassel, Germany). PhosphorImager screens were from Molecular Dynamics, Inc. (Sunnyvale, CA) and X-Omat AR films from Eastman Kodak Co. (Rochester, NY).

Cell culture and growth factor stimulation
To define growth factor regulation of IGFBPs synthesized by the neuroblastoma cells, cells were cultured in T 75 flasks or 24-well plates to about 60% confluency in Iscove’s medium (19) containing 10% FCS. Cells were then washed twice in PBS, incubated for 48 h in Iscove’s medium-2.5% FCS (low serum) followed by a 24-h incubation in serum-free Iscove’s medium (starvation medium). Cells were further incubated for 72 h in the presence or absence of 25 ng/ml of either IGF-I, bFGF, EGF, PDGF, or DHT at 10-8 M. Growth factors and hormones were selected for their ability to elicit mitogenic, differentiative, and metabolic effects in neuroblastoma cells as shown in previous studies (27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33). Growth factor concentrations, time of exposure, and pretreatment in low serum and starvation serum were determined in preliminary time course and dose-response experiments (data not shown), or obtained from previously published studies on this cell line (34) or related neuroblastoma cell lines (35). Medium was changed every 24 h, and conditioned medium (CM) was collected and stored at -20 C until analyzed. Cell numbers were determined by dye binding assay using napthalene blue black as previously described (36)(data not shown).

Western ligand blot (WLB) analysis
To identify the IGFBPs secreted by the SK-N-MC cells CM (250 µl) samples were concentrated by ethanol precipitation (21) and analyzed by WLB analysis (37) using [125I]IGF-I (1.5 x 106 cpm/50 ml). Filters were finally exposed to a phospho-screen for 16 h and then to Kodak X-Omat AR films with intensifying screens for 5–15 days at -70 C.

Immunoprecipitation
CM (500 µl) from cells cultured in the absence or presence of 25 ng/ml of bFGF, or [125I]IGF-I-cross-linked SK-N-MC membranes were immunoprecipitated with antisera to IGFBP-2, -3, -4, and -5 or normal rabbit serum (1:100), as previously described (21), and and analyzed by WLB or direct autoradiography.

Northern analysis
Total cellular RNA was extracted from cells using RNAzol as per manufacturer’s instruction. Northern blot analysis was performed on 25 µg of total RNA after electrophoresis on 0.8% agarose formaldehyde-denaturing gels, transfer to nylon filters, and cross-linking by alkali fixation. DNA probes (IGFBP-2, -3, -4) were labeled with [{alpha}-32P]deoxycytosine triphosphate (3000 Ci/mmol, 10 mCi/ml) at specific activity of more than 108 dpm/µg DNA. Filters were probed for 16 h at 65 C, washed in 2–0.1x SSC/0.1% SDS at 65 C, and exposed to x-ray film at -70 C. Consistency of RNA loading was confirmed by reprobing stripped filters for glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH).

Protease assays and proteolytic fragmentation of IGFBP-2
To investigate the presence of proteolytic activity for IGFBP-2 in CM from cells cultured in the presence of bFGF (F-CM), we performed a CM mixing assay. CM containing IGFBP-2 (serum free, SF-CM) was mixed 1:1 with F-CM (250 µl SF-CM + 250 µl F-CM) and incubated for 16 h at 37 C in the presence (+) or absence (-) of protease inhibitors (PI) (3 mM PMSF, 10 mM EDTA). As controls, each CM (SF-CM or F-CM) was mixed individually with fresh Iscove’s medium at 1:1 (250 µl CM + 250 µl Iscove’s medium) and incubated as above. Samples were analyzed by WLB (37). Dried filters were exposed to x-ray film for 15 days.

In addition, 20 ng of rat IGFBP-2 (26) or [125I]IGFBP-3 (20,000 cpm; specific activity, ~16 µCi/µg) (38) in 250 µl Iscove’s medium, were mixed with 250 µl of F-CM ± PI and incubated for 16 h at 37 C as above. F-CM + PI was run as control. Proteolysis of [125I]IGFBP-3 (20,000 cpm) was induced by incubation with 10 µl of human pregnant serum (31 weeks gestation) ± PI as above and run as control (not shown).

Immunoblotting
Filters were incubated for 16 h at 4 C in 10 mM Tris/HCl, pH 7.4/NaCl, 150 mM/1% BSA/0.1% Tween 20 (TBS-BT) with the anti-IGFBP-2 antiserum (1:3000). IGFBP-2 immunoreactivity was detected with the Vectastain Elite ABC kit following the manufacturer’s instructions (Vector Laboratories, Inc., Burlingame, CA).

Protease inhibitor assay
To define the family specificity of the IGFBP-2 protease, 20 ng of purified rat IGFBP-2 were incubated with CM from bFGF-treated cells at 37 C for 16 h in the presence or absence of the following proteases inhibitors: 10 mM EDTA, 5 mM PMSF, 5 mM AEBSF, 2 µM pepstatin, 5 mM aprotinin, 20 µg/ml E-64. Incubation was terminated by placing the tubes on ice before WLB analysis and immunoblotting as described above.

Affinity cross-linking of [125I]IGF-I
To determine and quantify variations in binding affinity of [125I]IGF-I for IGFBP-2 and its fragments, CM (85 µl) from cells treated for 48 h with 25 ng/ml of bFGF (with some intact IGFBP-2 present) was incubated in a final volume of 100 µl with [125I]IGF-I (~ 60,000 cpm/tube) in the presence of unlabeled IGF-I (10–1000 ng/ml) for 16 h at 4 C. Cross-linking with DSS and analysis of reduced samples were performed as we previously described (13). Dried gels were exposed overnight to a PhosphorImaging screen or to x-ray film for 5–15 days. Bands were then quantified by densitometry as described below. Experiments were performed twice and samples were in triplicate.

Densitometric analysis
Cross-linking gels were analyzed by the STORM PhosphorImager system and quantified by Image QuaNT software (Molecular Dynamics, Inc.) or exposed to x-ray film and analyzed by Bio-Rad GS-670 Imaging Densitometer and quantified by Molecular Analyst TM/PC Image Analysis software (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Inc., Hercules, CA). Sigma Plot software (Jandel Corp., San Rafel, CA) was used to plot the data.

Membrane preparation, [125I]IGF-I binding, and cross-linking
SK-N-MC membranes were obtained by modification of a previously described method (13). SK-N-MC cells, grown to confluency in a T-75 flask or cultured in the presence of bFGF as described above, were scraped in ice-cold homogenizing buffer (10 mM Tris/HCl, 2 mM PMSF, 1 trypsin inhibitor unit/ml of Aprotinin) and transferred to 15-ml tubes. Cells were disaggregated through 19-gauge and 23-gauge needle syringes, and the cell membrane suspension was then aliquoted into 1.5-ml tubes and centrifuged at 800 rpm for 5 min at 4 C. The supernatant was centrifuged at 14,000 rpm for 1 h at 4 C, and the pellet (membrane fraction, MF) was resuspended in ice-cold 10 mM Tris/HCl, pH 7.4. MF protein content was then adjusted to a total concentration of 100 µg/80 µl. BSA (0.1%) was then added for storage at -20 C until used.

[125I]IGF-I binding and cross-linking to cell membranes was performed as we previously described (13). As a control, rat IGFBP-2 (26) was incubated with [125I]IGF-I followed by cross-linking.

Proteolysis of membrane-associated IGFBP-2 and [125I]IGF-I cross-linking
To investigate whether membrane-associated IGFBP-2 is proteolysed, SK-N-MC membranes were incubated with CM from bFGF-treated cells in the presence or absence of protease inhibitors as follows. Membranes were pelleted and resuspended in 100 µl of F-CM ± 5 mM PMSF/5 mM EDTA. Pure rat IGFBP-2 (20 ng) was also incubated as above as control. All samples were incubated for 6 h at 37 C with periodic vortexing. Samples were harvested on ice, and those containing SK-N-MC membrane suspension were spun at 14,000 rpm for 20 min at 4 C. The supernatant was transferred to fresh tubes, and the pellet was resuspended in fresh Iscove’s medium. All samples, as well as SK-N-MC membranes or IGFBP-2 not incubated with F-CM, and F-CM used as control, were then incubated with [125I]IGF-I, cross-linked, and analyzed by 12% SDS-PAGE (13). Samples were analyzed in triplicate in each of two experiments.


   Results
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Materials and Methods
 Results
Discussion
 References
 
IGFBP-2 is the major IGFBP synthesized by SK-N-MC cells
We investigated the presence of IGFBPs in CM from SK-N-MC cells and studied their regulation by growth factors (bFGF, IGF-I, EGF, PDGF) and hormone (DHT) (Fig. 1Go). WLB revealed a major band of about 30–32 kDa in the 24 h CM after each of the treatments (Fig. 1AGo). This band was identified as IGFBP-2 by immunoprecipitation (Fig. 1BGo, lanes b and d). Two additional faint autoradiographic bands were seen at about 40 kDa and 24 kDa, consistent with IGFBP-3 and IGFBP-4, respectively. The 40-kDa band was identified as IGFBP-3 by immunoprecipitation (Fig. 1BGo, lane h). Although the 24-kDa band is consistent with IGFBP-4, it was expressed at extremely low levels that made it undetectable by WLB after immunoprecipitation with an anti-IGFBP-4 antiserum (data not shown).



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  		Figure 1. IGFBP-2 is the major IGFBP synthesized by SK-N-MC cells. A, CM from SK-N-MC cells cultured without growth factors (SF) or with bFGF (F), IGF-I (I), EGF (E), PDGF (P), or DHT (D) was analyzed by WLB as described in Materials and Methods. B, SF-CM 72 h and F-CM 72 h were immunoprecipitated with anti-IGFBP-2, -2/3, and -5 antisera and analyzed by WLB as described. Film exposures were for 5 days (panel A) or 15 days (panel B).

 
bFGF reduces IGFBP-2 abundance in CM via posttranslational events
In the presence of bFGF, the 30- to 32-kDa band, identified as IGFBP-2 (Fig. 1BGo), was diminished at 48 h (Fig. 1AGo, lane F-48) and barely detectable in CM after 72 h (lane F-72). This reduced abundance of IGFBP-2 in F-CM was not related to variation in cell number (data not shown). Treatment with all the other growth factors and hormones, as also found in preliminary dose-response and time course experiments (data not shown), did not affect IGFBP-2 protein abundance. Northern analysis of total RNA from 72 h bFGF-treated cells (Fig. 2AGo, lane c) showed no change in IGFBP-2 mRNA levels compared with untreated cells (Fig. 2AGo, lane a). IGFBP-2 mRNA was similarly expressed after 72 h of incubation with each of the growth factors (Fig. 2AGo, lanes a–f), as confirmed by the ratio of IGFBP-2 to GAPDH mRNA bands determined by PhosphoImager (data not shown). IGFBP-3 mRNA expression was only detectable in cells treated with bFGF (Fig. 2BGo, lane c) and correlated with the IGFBP-3 band detected by immunoprecipitation and WLB analysis (Fig. 1BGo, lanes e and h). In support of the low level of IGFBP-4 protein expression, IGFBP-4 mRNA was detected in all samples (Fig. 2AGo, lanes a–f).



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  		Figure 2. bFGF does not alter IGFBP-2 mRNA while increasing IGFBP-3 mRNA. Total RNA extracted form SK-N-MC cells cultured for 72 h without growth factors SF (a) or with EGF (b), bFGF (c), IGF-I (d), DHT (e), or PDGF (f), and prepubertal rat kidney total RNA (g) (positive control for IGFBP-3 mRNA) were subjected to Northern analysis for IGFBP-2, -4, and GAPDH (panel A) and IGFBP-3 (panel B) mRNA. Loading controls are indicated by GAPDH hybridization (panel A) and ethidium bromide staining of 18S (panel A) or 28S RNA (panel B). Film exposures were for up to 15 days.

 
bFGF induces a protease for IGFBP-2
Because our data showed that decreased levels of IGFBP-2 after exposure to bFGF was not explained by decreased levels of IGFBP-2 mRNA, we investigated the presence of an IGFBP-2 protease. When CM from cells cultured in serum-free medium (Fig. 3Go, lanes a and b) was mixed with CM from cells cultured in the presence of bFGF (lanes i and j), without protease inhibitors (lanes e and f), the IGFBP-2 band was decreased. This decrease was blocked by addition of protease inhibitors (EDTA, PMSF, aprotinin) (lanes g and h). IGFBP-3 abundance (Fig. 3Go, lanes e–h) or [125I]IGFBP-3 (data not shown) was unaffected during the incubation, suggesting the presence of a specific IGFBP-2 protease.



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  		Figure 3. bFGF induces proteolysis of IGFBP-2. CM from cells cultured without growth fators (SF-CM) (lanes a–d) was mixed with CM from cells cultured in the presence of bFGF (F-CM) (lanes i–l) ± protease inhibitors (EDTA/PMSF) and analyzed by WLB, as described in Materials and Methods. The mixed CM samples were run in lanes e–h. Filters were exposed to x-ray films for 15 days.

 
A cation-dependent serine-protease proteolyses IGFBP-2 to 14-kDa and 22-kDa fragments. Immunoblotting with an IGFBP-2 antiserum identified two IGFBP-2 fragments of 14 kDa and 22 kDa in CM from cells treated with bFGF (Fig. 4Go, lane a). CM from cells treated with bFGF was also able to proteolyse pure rat IGFBP-2 to give fragments of comparable sizes (16 kDa, 22 kDa) (Fig. 4Go, right panel, lane i). The IGFBP-2 protease activity was completely inhibited by aprotinin and combined EDTA/PMSF and, to a lesser extent, by pepstatin, AEBSF and, E-64 (Table 1Go), indicating that a cation-dependent serine-protease or a cascade of proteases is probably involved in IGFBP-2 proteolysis. Addition of IGF-I (150 ng/ml) to our samples did not prevent IGFBP-2 fragmentation (Fig. 4Go, lane d). Addition of bFGF (25 ng/ml) to CM from serum-free cultured cells did not induce fragmentation of IGFBP-2 in a cell-free system (Fig. 4Go, lane e), indicating that bFGF was acting indirectly to stimulate proteolytic activity.



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  		Figure 4. Proteolysis of human and rat IGFBP-2. Conditioned medium (CM) from cells cultured without growth fators (SF-CM) was mixed with CM from cells cultured in the presence of bFGF (F-CM) (lanes a, c, and d), and protease inhibitors (EDTA/PMSF) (lane a), or IGF-I (150 ng/ml) (lane d); SF-CM (lanes b and e) was incubated with bFGF (lane e); F-CM (lane f) was mixed with purified rat IGFBP-2 ± protease inhibitors (lanes h and i). Samples were analyzed by immunoblotting with an IGFBP-2 antiserum, as described in Materials and Methods.

 

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  		Table 1. Inhibition of IGFBP-2 proteolytic activity

 
The 14-kDa and 22-kDa IGFBP-2 fragments bind IGF-I
IGFBP-2 fragments were detected by immunoblotting (Fig. 4Go) but not by WLB (Fig. 1Go), suggesting that these fragments have reduced or no binding affinity for IGF-I after SDS-PAGE and transfer to nitrocellulose membranes. However, affinity cross-linking of [125I]IGF-I to CM from bFGF-treated cells revealed bands sized ~22 kDa, ~28 kDa, and ~38 kDa (Fig. 5AGo) most likely representing IGF-I cross-linked to 14-kDa and 22-kDa fragments and intact IGFBP-2, respectively. Unlabeled IGF-I decreased [125I]IGF-I binding to intact IGFBP-2 (Fig. 5AGo, 38-kDa band) more readily than the IGFBP-2 fragments (Fig. 5AGo, 28- and 22-kDa bands). Thus, in the presence of 100 ng/ml of unlabeled IGF-I, the 38-kDa band was barely detectable (~10%) [Fig. 5AGo, 38-kDa band; panel B, 38-kDa (•) at 100 ng/ml] while the two fragments retained about 50% of binding (Fig. 5Go, panel A, 28- to 22-kDa bands; panel B, 28 kDa ({blacktriangleup}) and 22 kDa ({blacksquare}) at 100 ng/ml]. IGFBP-2 fragments therefore bind IGF-I in solution, although the affinity of this binding is reduced at least 10-fold. The 14-kDa fragment appears to bind IGF-I with lower affinity than the 21-kDa fragment.



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  		Figure 5. The 14-kDa and 22-kDa IGFBP-2 fragments bind IGF-I with reduced affinity. [125I]IGF-I was incubated with CM from cells cultured with bFGF for 48 h [48 h F-CM, containing both intact IGFBP-2, 38-kDa (•), and IGFBP-2 fragments, 28-kDa ({blacktriangleup}) 22-kDa ({blacksquare}) ± unlabeled IGF-I], and cross-linking was performed with DSS. Samples were analyzed as described in Materials and Methods. A, Autoradiography; B, densitometric analysis; values represent mean ± SD with n = 3. Film exposure was for 15 days.

 
IGFBP-2 and its 14-kDa fragment associate with the cell membrane: two nonreceptor-IGF-I binding sites on the surface of SK-N-MC cells
To investigate whether IGFBP-2 was similarly bound to SK-N-MC cells, we performed [125I]IGF-I binding and cross-linking to SK-N-MC membranes. An affinity-labeled 38-kDa band, whose molecular size is consistent with an IGFBP/[125I]IGF complex, was identified on SK-N-MC membranes (Fig. 6Go, lane d). Immunoprecipitation with the anti-IGFBP-2 antiserum showed that the 38-kDa complex was indeed IGFBP-2/[125I]IGF-I (Fig. 6Go, lanes b and c).



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  		Figure 6. IGFBP-2 associates with cell membranes. SK-N-MC cell membranes were incubated with [125I]IGF-I, cross-linked (CXL) with DSS (lanes a–d), and immunoprecipitated with an anti-IGFBP-2 antiserum (lanes b and c) or control serum (lane a). Samples were analyzed as described in Materials and Methods. Film exposure was for 10 days.

 
We further investigated whether the IGFBP-2 protease present in CM from cells treated with bFGF (F-CM) could affect membrane-associated IGFBP-2. Cell membranes from bFGF-treated cells show decreasing levels of membrane-bound IGFBP-2 after 48 h and more clearly at 72 h (Fig. 7Go, lanes 72 h). This finding correlates well with the observed decreased level of IGFBP-2 in F-CM shown in Fig. 1Go. Furthermore, coincubation of F-CM with SK-N-MC membranes induced disappearance of the cross-linked complex at 38 kDa (Fig. 8Go, lane k) and the appearance of a cross-linked complex at 22 kDa (Fig. 8Go, lanes e and f), suggesting proteolysis of cell surface-associated IGFBP-2 (38 kDa, lane k) to IGFBP-2 fragment (22 kDa, lanes e and f). There was no evidence that fragments in solution (contained in the F-CM, Fig. 8Go, lanes h and i) were passively binding to membranes (Fig. 8Go, lanes j and k). This further suggests that the appearance of IGFBP-2 fragments on membrane after F-CM-induced proteolysis is specifically occurring at the membrane, rather than in the medium after IGFBP-2 dissociation from cell membrane. Therefore, these findings indicate that IGF-I potentially can bind to both intact IGFBP-2 and its 14-kDa fragment on the cell surface. In contrast, there was no evidence of the 22-kDa fragment on the cell membrane, suggesting that this fragment is unable to bind to cell surface.



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  		Figure 7. bFGF alters levels of membrane-bound IGFBP-2. SK-N-MC cells were cultured with bFGF for up to 72 h, and their membranes were incubated with [125I]IGF-I binding and cross-linking in the presence or absence (+/-) of unlabeled IGF-I as described in Materials and Methods. Film exposure was for 7 days.

 


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  		Figure 8. IGFBP-2 and its 14-kDa fragment associate with the cell membrane, two nonreceptor-IGF-I-binding sites on the surface of the SK-N-MC cells. SK-N-MC membranes (M) were incubated with CM from cells cultured with bFGF (F-CM) (IGFBP-2 proteolytic activity present) +/- protease inhibitors followed by [125I]IGF-I binding and cross-linking in the presence or absence of unlabeled IGF-I as described in Materials and Methods. S, Supernatant. Film exposure was for 10 days.

 

   Discussion
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Materials and Methods
 Results
 Discussion
References
 
Neuroblastomas are neural crest-derived tumors that rely on IGF-I and -II autocrine stimulation (39, 40, 41, 42) and have been widely used as models to study the role of IGFs in neuronal cells (23, 24, 25, 42). The data reported here illustrate that, similar to the study of Kiess et al. (25), the neuroblastoma cell line SK-N-MC predominantly expresses and synthesizes IGFBP-2. In addition to its presence in CM, we found that IGFBP-2 also is associated with SK-N-MC membranes. In these cells we further found that IGFBP-2 is proteolysed by a bFGF-inducible protease that is active on both soluble and membrane-bound IGFBP-2. The resulting IGFBP-2 fragments have reduced binding affinity for IGF-I, and the smaller of these retains some binding to cell membrane.

Proteolysis of IGFBP-2 has been demonstrated in vivo, under physiological conditions (10, 43), in pathophysiological conditions (44), and in vitro (10, 12, 45). Proteolysis of IGFBP-2 generates fragments of variable size, depending on cell line and species (40, 43, 46, 47), including a small fragment of about 14–18 kD and a larger one of about 21–25 kDa. These fragments have been reported either not to bind or to have markedly reduced binding affinity for the IGFs (43, 46). In addition, IGFBP-2 proteases can be activated or induced by hormones, cytokines, and drugs (12, 40, 46, 48). These findings suggest that proteolysis may represent a further level of regulation of IGFBP-2 and possibly affects IGFBP-2/IGF interactions and IGF action. Previous studies (12) however, have not identified such processes occurring at the cell surface.

In the present study, proteolysis of soluble and membrane-bound IGFBP-2 was detectable 48 h after the addition of bFGF. bFGF is a potent angiogenic factor (49) that regulates expression of matrix metalloproteinases (50, 51) and plasminogen activators (52, 53).

Limited proteolysis of IGFBP-2 to fragments of similar sizes to those described in the present study has been recently described in a neuroblastoma cell line by Menouny et al. (40). In that study it was shown that the addition of plasminogen induced proliferation of neuroblastoma cells and IGFBP-2 proteolysis. This effect was blunted by TGFß, but enhanced by retinoic acid. Thus, bFGF could potentially induce proteolysis of IGFBP-2 by a protease of the plasmin family as described by Menouny et al. (40). Our finding that IGFBP-2 mRNA is unchanged during IGFBP-2 proteolysis, whereas in the study by Menouny et al. (40) IGFBP-2 mRNA is down-regulated, suggests that differing mechanisms may be involved in this process in our cell line.

Similar to our study in the rat brain (21) and described elsewhere (54, 55, 56, 57), we here show for the first time in neuroblastoma cells, that bFGF induces IGFBP-3 expression. The role of IGFBP-3 in the CNS is unclear. IGFBP-3 mRNA, which is in low abundance during normal brain development (21, 58, 59), is induced in the rat brain after hypoxic/ischemic injury (58, 59). IGFBP-3 expression correlates with the processes of tissue repair, remodeling, maturation, and cellular differentiation of specific brain regions (21, 58, 59). However, IGFBP-3 inhibits cellular proliferation (60, 61), including mitogenic stimuli induced by bFGF and IGF-I (62).

Some IGFBPs associate with the extracellular matrix or cell surface via glycoproteins, collagens, integrins, and glycosaminoglycans (2, 11, 13, 63). We have recently demonstrated that IGFBP-2 binds to cell membrane chondroitin-sulfate proteoglycans in the rat brain (13). Similar to our finding in the rat brain, we demonstrated IGFBP-2/IGF-I complexes on membranes from SK-N-MC cells, suggesting that cell surface association of IGFBP-2 is a common mechanism for differential localization of IGFBP-2 in the nervous system. In addition, we have shown, for the first time, processing of membrane-bound IGFBP-2 by a specific IGFBP-2 protease, generating a 14-kDa fragment, which is capable of binding IGF-I while simultaneously being bound to the cell surface. This fragment was not detectable on membranes of cells treated with bFGF and only seen on cell membranes after incubation with medium from bFGF-treated cells. The presence of this fragment in F-CM during incubation did not lead to its binding to membranes. These findings suggest that such proteolysis is specifically occurring on the cell surface rather than in the medium after IGFBP-2 secretion.

Cell surface association of IGFBP-2 and its 14-kDa fragment raise intriguing questions about a potential role in regulating IGF-I access to its receptor. We have recently demonstrated that the binding affinity of IGFBP-2 for IGF-I is modestly reduced when it associates with glycosaminoglycans (13). In the present study, we have shown that the 14-kDa fragment of IGFBP-2 has markedly reduced affinity for IGF-I in solution. It is thus possible that proteolysis of membrane-bound IGFBP-2 provides a mechanism for creating perireceptor low-affinity IGF-I-binding sites. The detection of a reduced amount of intact IGFBP-2, but not IGFBP-2, fragments on cells treated with bFGF is likely to be the result of IGFBP-2 proteolysis and generation of such perireceptor low-affinity IGF-I-binding sites. These sites, as shown for the IGFBP-2 fragments in solution, are not readily displaceable and are thus inefficiently labeled by IGF-I. However, the precise localization of IGFBP-2 and its fragments relative to the IGF-I receptors is not known.

Cell surface association of IGFBP-2 and its 14-kDa but not 21-kDa fragment suggests that the smaller fragment contains a cell surface-binding domain. We suggested that the heparin-binding domain (PKKLRP), present in rat IGFBP-2 at residues 160–166 and in human IGFBP-2 at residues 179–185, may be involved in these interactions (13). Two recent studies by Ho and Baxter (43) (human breast milk) and Ishikawa et al. (47) (rat meningeal cells) reported the isolation and amino-terminal sequence of IGFBP-2 fragments of 14 kDa and 16 kDa, respectively. The amino-terminal sequence of the human 14-kDa fragment (GGKHHLGLEEPKKLRPPPAR) (43) was identical to residues 169–189 of human IGFBP-2. Similarly, the amino-terminal sequence of rat 16-kDa fragment (MGKGAKHL) (47) matched residues 148–155 of rat IGFBP-2. Thus, both fragments contain the putative heparin-binding domains. Although further studies are required to verify whether the 14-kDa fragment identified in SKNMC cells contains the heparin-binding domain, it is very likely that, similar to the 14-kDa fragment described by Ho and Baxter (43), this domain is present and possibly involved in the association of the 14-kDa fragment and intact IGFBP-2 wih the SK-N-MC cell surface.

In conclusion, in our hands bFGF modulates the IGF system at several levels in neuroblastoma cells by inducing proteolysis of soluble and cell-associated IGFBP-2 to generate fragments with reduced binding affinity for IGF-I, and by enhancement of IGFBP-3 synthesis. It has also been shown in other neuroblastoma cell lines to increase expression of the type I IGF receptor (22), and enhance IGF-I expression (18, 19). While proteolysis of secreted IGFBP-2 might increase levels of free IGF-I, release of IGFBP-3 and proteolysis of membrane-associated IGFBP-2, a likely membrane reservoir of IGF-I, might further optimize IGF-I availability for receptors. The IGFBP-2 fragments thus may play a key role in mediating bFGF modulation of IGF-I action in these cells.

Our findings further suggest a role for IGFBP-2 in modulating IGF action, with relevance for IGFBP-2 biology in degenerative brain diseases (64), brain injury (4), and in a wide variety of common malignancies (65, 66, 67, 68, 69).


   Acknowledgments
 
We would like to thank David Casley for iodination of IGFBP-3 and Dr. Amanda J. Fosang for helpful discussion of the manuscript.


   Footnotes
 
1 This project was supported by a grant from the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia. (Grant No. 960265). Back

Received October 19, 1998.


   References
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Materials and Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 References
 

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